Original Mountings of Paintings Created for Connoisseurs in Joseon Korea: Case Study of Works by Yi Jeong (1554–1626)

2.1. Concept of “Paintings for Connoisseurs”

It seems necessary to first explain the nature of “paintings for connoisseurs” and the origin of the depiction of plants in Korean art. Before the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), painting served diverse functions: it was used for religious, decorative, and even educative purposes. Some Korean literati, known as sadaebu, devoted themselves to painting owing to their appreciation for the art form. The idea of creating a painting for the connoisseur’s delight, which originated in China, seems to have reached Korean literati by the 12^th century, just when the sadaebu class started encouraging art collecting. Korean words such as wansang (완상 玩賞) or gamsang (감상 鑑賞), meaning “looking for the eye’s delight” or “enjoying beauty,” respectively, were invented during this time. Notably, the expression godong seohwa (고동서화 古董書畵), meaning “antiquities, calligraphies, paintings,” referring to art collecting, also dates back to the same period (Hwang, 2006; 2010).

2.2. Significance of the Four Noble Plants

Since the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) and the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368), the “four noble plants” (sagunja 사군자 四君子)—plum trees, orchids, chrysanthemums, and bamboos―were particularly sought after by scholars as a specific subject matter. These plants symbolized the four seasons, hinting at the virtues of Confucianism; they first appeared in works such as The Classic of Poetry during the Zhou dynasty. Similar to landscape painting, paintings involving these plants possibly reached Korea through embassies as early as the late Goryeo dynasty. The Mangwondang, a famous academy created in Beijing by Chungseon, who reigned between 1298 and 1308, seems to have exerted a decisive influence. The Korean sadaebu Yi Jehyeon (1287–1367) encountered the renowned Yuan dynasty scholar-painter Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322) through these meetings. This Chinese artist had gained popularity for his landscapes and his ink-based depictions of the four noble plants (Sin, 1445). These compositions became the subject of literary comments by the sadaebu, who started creating similar works. Their earliest testimonies have unfortunately disappeared; the oldest surviving painting dates back to 1424. This work was painted by Sumun in the form of an album and is now preserved in a private Japanese collection.¹⁾

2.3. Yi Jeong: A Master Bamboo Painter

By the end of the 16^th century, Yi Jeong (이정 李霆, 1541– 1624) had become the most renowned Korean bamboo painter. The great-great-grandson of King Sejong (r.1418– 1450), Yi Jeong was a scholar who created ink paintings depicting bamboos, plum trees, and orchids. During the Imjin War (1592–1598), Yi Jeong was severely injured by an enemy’s sword, which inflicted a major wound on his right arm. Despite this injury, he overcame the challenge through determination and resilience. After his recovery, he continued his artistic pursuits, producing even more vigorous and dynamic paintings (Baek, 2004; Seo, 1998; Yi, 1998). Some of his paintings are now housed at the National Museum of Korea in Seoul, but the categorization of their original function and format remains unclear: some of the works include scrolls, while others seem to be parts of dismantled screens. This categorization problem results from the loss of original mountings and subsequent successive remountings, which sometimes obscure the original format and intended function of these paintings.

3.1. Examination of the Scroll at The Metropolitan Museum

Today, the painting by Yi Jeong at The Metropolitan Museum of Art appears to be quite instructive regarding the issue discussed in this paper. Painted in ink on silk, this work depicts bamboos with slightly curved main stems and leaves pointing toward the sky, suggesting movement from blowing wind. As is common in Yi Jeong’s works, the sharp design of the main bamboo stem strongly contrasts with the almost translucent appearance of other stems, creating an impression of a thick, damp environment.

Signed at the upper left corner with the painter’s seal “Taneun” (탄은 灘隱),²⁾ this work is a rare case of a painting mount containing a colophon, termed sidang (시당 詩堂) (Figure 2), literally “the pavilion of poetry.” Notably, this colophon is attached to the top of the painting and is written in ink on pale blue silk adorned with a subtle floral pattern. The colophon includes a poem composed by the scholar Changlang (창랑 滄浪), a contemporary of Yi Jeong.³⁾ According to the inscription, Chungwha (중화 仲和) transcribed the poem in calligraphy for someone named Daelae (대래 大來).⁴⁾”

Figure 2.

Diagram of the different elements of the Korean traditional hanging scroll, with Sino-Korean characters and English transliterations.

Another exceptional characteristic of the work is that the title is written in golden sigillary characters: 石陽風葉, which means “[Bamboo] Leaves in the Wind [painted by] Seok-yang.⁵⁾” It is also notable that it is presented on the top of the scroll (called sang’hoejang 상회장 上回裝); at that time, the common practice was to inscribe titles within compositions. Additionally, a seal is observed to the left of the title; unfortunately, it is difficult to decipher. The following translation of the poem is sourced from The Metropolitan Museum of Art database and credited to Tim Zhang:

“Aged bamboo has grown unevenly Branches lift together in the breeze, Desolate and sparse, seeking to stir people, Lingering response found nowhere else.⁶⁾”

This presence of the colophon is of scholarly interest because colophons are extremely rare in Korean paintings. According to the art historian Robert Van Gulik, in traditional Chinese scrolls, scholars inscribed text on the recto, and the inscription extended to the reverse side of the scrolls. However, at the beginning of the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), a decision was made that inscriptions should be restricted to the paintings’ recto. During restoration and remounting in China, inscriptions on the reverse side were preserved and moved to the recto, which is why colophons (sidang) can be seen in these works (Van Gulik, R., 1958). Thus, the increasing use of such remounting processes led to the proliferation of these “bands” in China and Korea. In other words, a conservation technique gradually evolved into a decorative element.

This combination of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, structured with a title, accompanying text (such as a poem or comments), and an illustration, is not limited to scroll paintings but can also be observed in other formats, such as folding screens. Among scroll paintings, similar compositional structures are evident in works like the handscroll Dream Journey to the Peach Blossom Land by An Gyeon, housed in the Tenri Library (Japan), and the hanging scrolls of Gyehoedo (계회도 契會圖). While differing in purpose and subject matter, these works demonstrate a shared format that combines textual and visual elements within a scroll structure. Gathering of Government Officials is a representative example of Gyehoedo, a type of commemorative painting created to document and celebrate gyehoe (契會), social gatherings among Confucian scholars and government officials. While the tradition of Gyehoe originated during the Goryeo dynasty, most surviving examples of Gyehoedo date from the 16^th century and later, suggesting that the production of these paintings became more prevalent during the Joseon dynasty. These paintings served both as historical records and as artistic representations of the cultural and social values of the bureaucratic elite.

Typically created in the form of vertical scrolls, Gyehoedo features three main components: a title inscribed in bold script, often in sigillary characters at the top; a participant list (jwamok 좌목 座目), detailing names and official ranks; and an illustration depicting the gathering. A notable surviving example of Gyehoedo from this period is preserved in the National Museum of Korea in Seoul (Figure 3). These elements—titles, participant lists, and illustrations—are directly integrated onto the same painting support (hwabon 화본 畵本), making them a unified composition. In contrast, Yi Jeong often employed a compositional approach where textual and visual elements were created as separate components. This distinction reflects differences in the structural arrangement of Korean paintings and highlights how such works were tailored to their intended purposes without imposing assumptions about their functions. By observing these works within the context of Korean scroll painting traditions, one can identify distinct compositional approaches that reflect the broader historical and artistic practices of the time. This perspective offers a clearer understanding of how scroll formats were utilized across various genres. This highlights the critical role of mounting styles in shaping the interpretation and preservation of these scrolls. Exploring the original and modified mounts of Yi Jeong’s scrolls offers valuable insights into their historical context and artistic intentions.

Figure 3.

Anonymous, 1541, Gathering of Government Officials (hakwan-gyehedo). Ink on silk. Image dimensions: Height 97 cm; Width 59 cm. Seoul, National Museum of Korea. (Treasure, 신수 13555) © National Museum of Korea.

Yi Jeong’s scroll at The Metropolitan Museum raises questions regarding the appearance of its original mount. Its uniform white border betrays the style of recent Chinese mounts called “one color mountings” (in Chinese, yīsè biǎo 一色裱). One may then wonder whether the different elements of the composition—title, text, and painting—were conceived as such when the scroll was first created.

3.2. Insights from the Scroll at the Guimet Museum

The Guimet Museum of Asian Arts in Paris has recently acquired a very similar scroll by Yi Jeong (Figure 4).⁷⁾ This painting, whose technique and dimensions are identical to that of the work at The Metropolitan Museum, represents bamboos in the rain. Signed by the artist in the lower right corner, this scroll bears the same red seal as does the painting in New York. One immediately recognizes the artist’s skill in rendering the contrast between the bamboo stems, creating a similar effect of a thick, damp environment. However, the two works convey entirely different impressions: the scroll at The Metropolitan Museum depicts bamboo stems moved by the wind, and the scroll at the Guimet Museum shows the silhouette of the same plant bent by rain.

Figure 4.

Yi Jeong (1554–1626), Bamboos in the Rain, circa 1622. Ink on silk with gold in the colophon. Image dimensions: Height 115.6 cm; Width 53.3 cm. Paris, Guimet Museum of Asian Arts (MA 6848). © Meejung Kim-Marandet. (A) Verso (right image); (B) Recto (left image).

These stylistic analogies were predictable, but the reappearance of a colophon is more surprising. The scroll includes a poem, on a similar pale blue silk, written by the scholar Changlang. The inscription in this scroll similarly notes that Chungwha penned the calligraphic letters for someone named Daelae (Cambon, 2000). The upper part of the painting’s border reveals its title. Characters written in golden ink are inscribed within a red-colored frame (called 계선 gyeseon). From right to left, it reads “石陽雨葉,” which means “[Bamboo] Leaves [in the] Rain [painted by] Seok-yang.” This scroll also has a seal on its left side; however, the worn pigments make it impossible to read. As for the poem, the translation is as follows:

“In the rain, the bamboos stand aligned, The mist appears, at times light, at times thick. The long stems remain unpressured, Yearning to become a dragon.⁸⁾”

The painting has been conserved and remains in excellent condition. The composition is surrounded by a cream-white border (byeon-a 변아 邊兒) and features two rectangular pieces of blue silk in the upper and lower parts (sang’hoejang 상회장 上回裝 and ha’hoejang 하회장 下回裝) (Figure 2). This design, along with the choice of fabrics and colors, reflects the characteristics of Korean painting mountings, as evidenced by rare surviving examples that have retained their original elements.

Generally, patterned mounting silk is more decorative and exquisite than plain silk. In this hanging scroll, the three distinct “flower patterns” are subtly arranged―they are not overly prominent―which enhances the overall elegance of the artwork. Importantly, all the patterned silks used are satin damasks.

Today, few Korean paintings framed in their original mounts survive, and even fewer can be categorized as “paintings for connoisseurs.” The use of patterned silk for the colophons is particularly notable. In the painting at the Guimet Museum, this color offers a transitional tone between the indigo blue and the cream white of the framing elements. These components, which reinforce the preciousness of the object, might well reflect the aristocratic origins of the author. Yi Jeong is known for having used gold on black silk (heuggyeon geumni 흑견금니 黒絹金泥). One of his works, Bamboos under the Wind, housed at the Kansong Museum in Seoul, serves as an exemplary demonstration of this aspect of his stylistic development. (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Yi Jeong (1554–1626), Bamboos under the Wind, Kansong Museum, Seoul © Kansong Museum of Art.

4.1. Virtual Reconstruction of the Scroll

The authentic structure of the scroll mount at the Guimet Museum allows for the virtual reconstruction of the painting at The Metropolitan Museum. This reconstruction serves several important purposes: it improves our understanding of the original aesthetic context, aids in preserving the historical significance of the artwork, and provides insights into traditional mounting techniques.

To achieve this reconstruction, I first analyzed the original mounting elements of the scroll at the Guimet Museum, carefully noting the specific materials and techniques used. This process involved a detailed examination of the surviving elements of the work, including the border design, the alignment of components, and the choice of colors and fabrics. By comparing these elements with those of the painting at The Metropolitan Museum, we can identify key differences and gaps in the remounted scroll.

The comparison reveals that a part of The Metropolitan Museum scroll containing the title has been cut off, and the red border has disappeared. The remount positions the colophon right beneath the title, creating the illusion that they constitute a single element (Figure 6). To replicate this effect, I employed digital modeling techniques that enable precise adjustments and visualizations. By layering images of the original components and integrating them into a digital framework, I created a faithful representation of how the scroll would have appeared in its original form.

Figure 6.

Process of virtually reconstructing the Chinese-style remounted hanging scroll from The MET* (right image) into an authentic Korean traditional hanging scroll using the reference scroll from the GM* (left image):

(A) Current mounting

(B) Separating the authentic parts from The MET scroll and matching them with the authentic form of the GM scroll

(C) Condition after the virtual reconstruction of the MET scroll mount (right image).

*Abbreviations:

MET: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

GM: Guimet Museum

Ultimately, this virtual reconstruction helps restore the visual integrity of the artwork and also enhances our appreciation for the craftsmanship inherent in traditional Korean mounting practices. This exercise encourages further discussion on the importance of preserving traditional practices in contemporary conservation efforts.

4.2. Unresolved Questions and Further Research Directions

Examinations of the scroll paintings at The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Guimet Museum raise several questions that remain unanswered. First, is there more to know about Daelae, to whom both poems were dedicated? Second, would deciphering the seal help answer the first question and provide the name of the collector who once owned both paintings? Notably, the refined aspect of these mounts suggests royal provenance. Documents have indicated that the Korean King Seonjo (1552–1608) appreciated Yi Jeong’s art and rewarded the artist each time he painted a scroll.⁹⁾ A century later, Yi Jeong’s paintings remained popular, as shown by the preference of King Sukjong (1674– 1720), whose admiration for Yi Jeong’s depictions of bamboos is reflected in Records and King’s Poems Compilations, published in 1776.¹⁰⁾ However, the presence of the name of Daelae, of whom nothing is known, contradicts the possibility of royal provenance.

What is certain is that the scroll at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, before it was remounted, looked identical to the scroll at the Guimet Museum. However, no further examples of Korean paintings with identical mounts dating back to the 17^th or 18^th century are currently known. Although the two paintings assessed in this paper offer a unique case study, the question of their original intended purpose and audience remains unanswered. They may have originally formed a pair or been part of the same set of paintings (Figure 6 C).